Based on an analysis of scientific publications, this review article substantiates the need to implement effective technologies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide, which have a detrimental impact on global climate change. Particular attention is given to the negative environmental effects of lifting and transport equipment and terminal tractors used at large terminals. It is noted that, in this context, terminal operators are increasingly adopting hybrid engines, environmentally friendly fuels, or electrically powered equipment. Evidence is presented that the transition to lifting and transport equipment powered by electric energy sources can not only reduce greenhouse gas emissions during port operations but, due to the simpler mechanical design of electric drives, also improve equipment uptime and lower maintenance costs. In addition to replacing internal combustion engines, it is necessary to modernize hydraulic systems — particularly in reach stackers, which are among the most complex types of handling equipment (the hydraulic systems of reach stackers contain approximately 800 liters of hydraulic fluid). It is proposed to replace hydraulic cylinders, which are the main consumers of hydraulic energy during cargo handling operations, with electric cylinders. These components are comparable in operational loads to hydraulic cylinders; moreover, when internal combustion engines are replaced by battery systems, the total cost of ownership is reduced and positioning accuracy is improved.

The study examines cyber threats within the network of the maritime Automatic Identification System (AIS). A review of available data on identified AIS vulnerabilities has shown a lack of a well-structured formal description and classification of threats. At present, the existing scenario-based attack models do not encompass the full spectrum of possible threats, while most approaches to AIS cybersecurity — both organizational and technical — are limited to information-security measures implemented directly on board the vessel. Five independent models of external attacks on AIS are proposed, representing typical levels of cyber threats ranging from low (single-signal spoofing) to high (combined multistage attacks employing several methods). In addition to external threats, the study also considers internal threats related to unauthorized penetration into the ship’s computer network followed by destructive actions. These cases are discussed separately, as they require specific methods of analysis and mitigation. New approaches and recommendations for AIS protection are proposed. Counteracting cyber threats requires a balanced combination of organizational and technical measures, conventionally divided into software-algorithmic and hardware-architectural categories. The former includes methods for improving the AIS protocol and software, such as message authentication and encryption, anomaly filtering, and intrusion detection systems. Another important direction involves the development of algorithms for detecting falsified AIS data. This requires the creation of additional monitoring systems capable of continuously analyzing incoming information for signs of anomalies, such as the absence of a previous route, illogical maneuvers, data duplication, or desynchronization with radar observations. Future AIS cybersecurity is expected to rely on more detailed regulations and guidelines issued by classification societies, as well as on enhanced software and hardware solutions implemented both on board vessels and in shore-based centers, such as Vessel Traffic Management Systems (VTMS).

This paper explores the possibility of integrating fuzzy set theory with modified piecewise approximations into a unified framework for developing advanced navigation models. The optimal combination of fuzzy logic and spline functions makes it possible to account for uncertainty and inaccuracy in navigation measurements through the application of point interpolation principles. The theoretical basis of the study relies on the fuzzy approximation theorem, which states that any system can be synthesized using fuzzy logic. A practical example is provided, demonstrating the use of fuzzy sets in spline-based trajectory modeling to ensure timely avoidance of restricted navigation areas and to determine optimal trajectory parameters under routing uncertainty. An experiment was conducted to synthesize a complex spline trajectory of a vessel using linguistic variables within fuzzy logic theory. The feasibility of combining spline function methods and fuzzy set compositions was empirically confirmed through the approximation of a smooth trajectory, which increased the speed of soft computing by 15 %. The proposed hybrid approach can serve as a mathematical foundation for adaptive fuzzy models designed to predict the trajectories of mobile objects, contributing to the development of unmanned navigation concepts. A paradigm shift is anticipated — from traditional requirements for measurement accuracy based on probabilistic and statistical methods to the fuzzy domain of information granulation. The paper also examines the alternative applicability of fuzzy logic versus probability theory when using membership functions to address non-standard navigation problems. Furthermore, the study investigates the modeling of a watch officer’s decision-making process based on fuzzy logic principles, emphasizing the influence of the human factor on navigational safety in intelligent hybrid systems. Managing uncertainty in cognitive navigation tasks is viewed as a key aspect of preventing emergencies through the application of fuzzy logic algebra.

This paper presents an optimization study of the truck discharge zone at an oil terminal using discrete-event simulation. The latest scientific literature on the subject is analyzed. The literature review shows that most studies focus on the application of simulation modeling to optimize operations at container terminals, while other types of terminals — such as bulk and liquid cargo terminals — have received considerably less attention. However, optimization of transport and handling processes at these terminals is equally important for their efficient operation. The study proposes a model developed in Python using the SimPy library to determine the optimal number of discharge racks required for efficient processing of tank trucks. The main optimization criteria are minimizing the truck queue length and waiting time. The model accounts for parameters such as truck unloading time, intervals between arrivals, and discharge performance at the racks. Five simulation runs were conducted with varying numbers of racks using a dataset with specified initial conditions. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed model enables effective analysis of technological and layout solutions for the truck discharge zone. The model can be used to justify the required number of technological elements of the terminal. Based on the simulation outcomes, it is possible to draw conclusions about the adequacy or insufficiency of the number of racks for a given cargo flow and to assess the need for additional handling capacity. The proposed model is simple, transparent, and effective for use in the design of oil terminals.

This paper examines the influence of individual factors on the level of freight rates in the local freight market for the transportation of grain cargoes from Russian seaports. The freight market is considered as a complex dynamic system operating under probabilistic laws, with its state determined by numerous factors of varying significance. Identifying the relative importance of these factors makes it possible to reduce the dimensionality of the mathematical model used for analyzing and forecasting the behavior of the studied system. The research presents statistical data on the dynamics of freight rates in the local grain shipping market from the ports of the Russian Federation, identifies the main importing countries of Russian grain, and outlines new trends and directions in grain exports. The dynamics of changes in grain freight rates across the main maritime basins of the Russian Federation — the Azov, Black Sea, Caspian, and Baltic — are analyzed, and the shares of each basin in the total volume of grain exports are determined. The analysis reveals no correlation between the shape of freight rate curves and the direction of transportation, as well as between vessel size and the type of grain cargo transported. A clear dependence was found between transportation distance and the vertical position of the freight rate curve on the graph, which supports the hypothesis that it is possible to estimate freight rate levels for any transport route based on a known rate curve for another route by calculating the difference in distance between them and adjusting the rate by a value proportional to the transportation distance for vessels with minimal ballast passage from the opening position to the loading port.

Based on the results of model experiments, this study investigates the potential for their application in mathematical models of a vessel, considering that one of the most critical elements of a ship’s mathematical model is the description of the hydrodynamic force loads acting on the hull during controlled motion. These loads are represented as functions of dimensionless hydrodynamic coefficients dependent on various dimensionless kinematic parameters of the vessel’s motion. In applied research practice, two main calculation approaches are commonly used to determine the hydrodynamic characteristics of a ship’s hull, differing in the specific combination of non-dimensional kinematic parameters: the first uses the drift angle and angular velocity, while the second is based on the transverse component of the ship’s linear velocity and angular velocity. The relationships between the dimensionless hydrodynamic characteristics of the hull and the corresponding kinematic parameters of motion are expressed in polynomial form as products of expansion coefficients — i. e., the first and higher-order partial derivatives with respect to the kinematic parameters — by the corresponding motion variables. Model experiments are performed using the harmonic oscillation method, mainly on planar motion mechanisms (PMM) in experimental towing tanks. The results of these experiments yield the partial derivatives of hydrodynamic coefficients. The study explores the possibility of integrating model test data to develop generalized computational formulas that are independent of the specific kinematic parameters considered. A comparative analysis of several calculation methods for determining non-dimensional hydrodynamic characteristics as functions of various dimensionless kinematic parameters is presented. The adequacy of these methods is verified using full-scale experimental data obtained from ships of different displacements and hull configurations. Simulations of controlled ship motion were carried out using the developed mathematical models, taking into account external environmental factors observed during sea trials.

The paper examines the principal issues of Version 6.2.0 of the sixth edition of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) Standards for Hydrographic Surveys S-44, adopted in October 2024. Although Version 6.2.0 is largely identical to Version 6.1.0, it introduces two new subsections in paragraph 3.8 related to seabed characteristics and their inclusion in the specification matrix. In October 2024, the draft of Version 6.2.0 was circulated to national hydrographic offices for review, and in November 2024 the Department of Navigation and Oceanography of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation submitted its official feedback with recommendations to the IHO. The feedback of the Russian side and the comments provided by the Chairs of the IHO Working Groups and the IHO Secretariat, published in Circular Letter No. 21/2025, are analyzed in detail. The analysis highlights several inconsistencies and contradictions in the Working Groups’ comments, as well as the lack of justification for referencing the IHO Manual on Hydrography (C-13), which is outdated and does not reflect the current state of modern digital hydrography. Special attention is given to one of the most significant changes in Version 6.2.0: the clarification of the term Total Horizontal Uncertainty (THU) and the introduction of a new method for its computation based on the standard deviations of sonar antenna coordinates, which requires further substantiation. The newly added glossary terms a priori and a posteriori uncertainty are discussed, and the current approach to obtaining a posteriori uncertainty is critically assessed. It is proposed that the seventh edition of S-44 should reinstate and formalize the statistically based method for assessing posterior accuracy through the analysis of overlaps between main and check survey lines, as previously recommended in the fourth and fifth editions. This methodology should also be reflected in the updated IHO Manual C-13. The need to elaborate an alternative method for real-time water-level corrections using high-precision geodetic heights of tide-gauge benchmarks (RTK-tide), briefly mentioned in recent editions of S-44, is substantiated. Recommendations are provided for presenting this method in the updated C-13, including the use of geoid models to determine height differences between the geoid and chart datum. Additional potential clarifications and improvements to Version 6.2.0 are identified, which may be appropriate to include in the forthcoming seventh edition of the IHO S-44 Standards.

This paper presents a conceptual life cycle model of an automated tugboat (AT) operating within a system that provides autonomous ship guiding and mooring in a seaport. Existing approaches to modeling the life cycle of technical systems are analyzed, with particular attention to the specific features of autonomous maritime vessels. Special emphasis is placed on the operational phase, which fundamentally differs from that of conventional tugboats due to the absence of an onboard crew and fully automated operation. Six core systems ensuring AT functionality are identified: the automatic navigation system, situational awareness system, technical systems control and monitoring system, communication system, propulsion system, power supply system, and rigid coupling systems designed for connection with both transport vessels and other automated tugboats. Five main measures for ensuring failure-free operation are defined: preventive maintenance, operability monitoring, functional testing, predictive maintenance, and corrective maintenance. Based on an analysis of six possible operational states of ATs — readiness, active operation, standby, emergency, recovery, and charging — the study establishes dependencies between these states and permissible maintenance activities. A generalized conceptual life cycle model of the automated tugboat is proposed, aimed at improving reliability and safety during autonomous port operations. The results can be applied in the design, operation, and certification of autonomous tugboats and may support the development of standards and regulations for autonomous maritime systems.

This paper discusses the application of polymer composite processing technologies in the manufacture of hull structures of displacement vessels, describes the main components used, and reviews the primary manufacturing methods approved for use by the Russian Maritime Register of Shipping. The selection of a specific method depends on multiple factors, and in certain cases, shipyards are compelled to deviate from the classification society’s recommendation to apply the resin infusion method as the main process. Technological procedures employing the contact molding method are analyzed. For the particular case of producing the outer hull plating of a displacement vessel, justification is provided for selecting a method other than the recommended one. With an identical reinforcement scheme, the side plating thickness obtained by the infusion method was, as expected, lower than that produced by contact molding; however, the contact molding method ensured compliance with the design thickness. Applying the infusion method required the addition of extra reinforcement layers, increasing cost, production time, and structural weight. At the same time, tensile strength and stiffness characteristics of the infusion-produced samples exceeded those of the contact-molded ones. The contact molding method proved more cost-effective, primarily due to lower material consumption, the use of less-skilled labor, and the absence of high production risks. It is proposed to adopt the infusion method as a baseline for calculating hull plating thickness, which could serve as one of the approaches to incorporating the manufacturing method into the structural design process. Addressing the challenges in this field will facilitate the industrial implementation of advanced composite manufacturing technologies based on resin infusion.

This paper addresses the problem of accelerated corrosion–erosion degradation of exhaust valves in marine diesel engines, caused by the combined effects of high temperature, aggressive sulfur compounds, and abrasive ash particles in combustion products. The main objective was to develop and validate a reproducible laboratory method that enables accelerated simulation of real operating conditions and quantitative assessment of the influence of individual factors on overall wear. A dedicated corrosion–erosion test chamber was designed to ensure precise control of sample surface temperature (650–800 °C), sulfur oxide (SOₓ) concentration, solid particle content, and other environmental parameters. The test specimens were exhaust valves from a 6ChN 18/22 engine, including both uncoated samples and those with heat-resistant protective coatings. To optimize testing and maximize information yield, a fractional factorial experimental design (2⁵⁻¹) was applied, enabling systematic evaluation of five key variables. After 100-hour test cycles, a comprehensive analysis was carried out, including measurements of wear rate, microcrack depth, mass loss, and microhardness changes. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that surface temperature and SOₓ concentration exert the greatest influence on wear, with a pronounced synergistic interaction between SOₓ and solid particles. The experiments confirmed that fuel additives reduce chemical corrosion by 30–35 %, while protective coatings decrease erosive wear by 20–25 %. Validation of the developed method against field data demonstrated good agreement, with deviations within 10–15 %. The proposed methodology serves as an effective tool for predicting the service life of exhaust valves and justifying the selection of protective measures in marine engine design and shipbuilding practice.

This paper presents the development and experimental testing of a prototype device designed to reduce false alarms in automated control systems of marine power plants. The study examines the architectural features of modern automation systems used at maritime facilities and identifies the main types of failures occurring in information and measurement channels associated with pressure control, one of the key parameters in ship monitoring and control systems. Based on this analysis, the hardware and software components of a prototype device implementing algorithms for fault identification in pressure sensors were developed. The prototype was experimentally tested under simulated fault conditions to evaluate its performance. The results confirmed the device’s effectiveness in detecting the most common defects in measurement circuits, while also revealing limitations related to its inability to diagnose certain complex types of sensor failures. To enhance the functional completeness of the system, an additional algorithm is proposed for integrating the device into the architecture of an automated control system to enable more accurate decision-making when fault symptoms are detected. The results of the study can be applied in the modernization of existing control and protection systems of marine power plants to improve their resistance to false triggering and ensure safe and reliable operation of ship equipment.

This paper addresses the problem of automated visual inspection of welded and hull structures in shipbuilding, where product reliability and operational safety critically depend on the timely and accurate detection of defects. Traditional optical inspection is limited by subjective human assessment and poor scalability, while conventional computer vision techniques suffer from data scarcity and variability of industrial environments. To overcome these limitations, an integrated mathematical framework is proposed that combines unsupervised and semi-supervised learning approaches. The architecture includes: (i) a convolutional autoencoder trained on defect-free reference samples for reconstruction-based anomaly detection; (ii) a two-stage sliding-window algorithm with dual thresholds for distinguishing weak defects from background noise under controlled false alarm rates; and (iii) a semi-supervised classification module that integrates contrastive learning with graph-based pseudo-labeling methods (k-NN and label propagation) to leverage large-scale unlabeled datasets. Joint optimization of reconstruction and discriminative representation aligns normality criteria with stable classification boundaries. Experimental validation confirms that the proposed method reliably detects both prominent and subtle defects, minimizes dependence on manual labeling, and can be seamlessly integrated into industrial quality assurance workflows. The main contribution lies in the development of a unified inspection model that fuses reconstruction-based, contrastive, and graph-driven approaches, demonstrating potential for improving reproducibility, reducing labor intensity, and enhancing the reliability of shipbuilding production.

This study focuses on developing an unsupervised anomaly detection model for multivariate time series generated by complex Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) in shipbuilding and manufacturing enterprises, where strong inter-channel dependencies and regime drifts reduce the sensitivity of traditional Statistical Process Control (SPC) methods. The objective is to design a mathematically grounded model capable of detecting abnormal system behavior under varying operational conditions. The proposed approach includes: (1) representing system states through signature matrices that capture pairwise dependencies among process parameters; (2) reconstructing normal operational patterns using a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) neural network and its convolutional variant, Convolutional LSTM (ConvLSTM); (3) applying adaptive thresholds derived from the quantile rule and the Exponentially Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) method to account for process drift; and (4) localizing anomaly sources using residual maps and linking them to the control loop for interpretability. The model ensures scale invariance, sensitivity to cross-channel correlations, and robustness to regime shifts. Its practical application lies in real-time monitoring and early detection of deviations in ship power plants, cooling and fuel systems, and various stages of shipbuilding production, thereby reducing false alarms and providing interpretable diagnostics for operators.